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Aerodynamics - Four Forces
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Understanding how these forces work and knowing how to control them with the use of power and flight controls are essential to flight.

In steady flight, the sum of these opposing forces is always zero.
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Lift
   
Lift is a force that is produced by the dynamic effect of the air acting on the airfoil, and acts perpendicular to the flight path through the center of lift (CL) and perpendicular to the lateral axis. In level flight, lift opposes the downward force of weight.
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Production of Lift
   
A wing moving through air generates the force called lift. Lift from the wing that is greater than the force of gravity, directed opposite to the direction of gravity, enables an aircraft to fly. Generating this force called lift is based on some important principles, Newton's basic laws of motion, and Bernoulli's principle of differential pressure.

 

 

Newton's Three Basic Laws of Motion
 
 Newton's First Law:
   
"Every object persists in its state of rest or uniform motion in a straight line unless it is compelled to change that state by forces impressed on it."


This means that nothing starts or stops moving until some outside force causes it to do so.

An aircraft at rest on the ramp remains at rest unless a force strong enough to overcome its inertia is applied. Once it is moving, its inertia keeps it moving, subject to the various other forces acting on it. These forces may add to its motion, slow it down, or change its direction.

 
 Newton's Second Law:
   
"Force is equal to the change in momentum per change in time. For a constant mass, force equals mass times acceleration."


When a body is acted upon by a constant force, its resulting acceleration is inversely proportional to the mass of the body and is directly proportional to the applied force.

This takes into account the factors involved in overcoming Newton's First Law. It covers both changes in direction and speed, including starting up from rest (positive acceleration) and coming to a stop (negative acceleration or deceleration).

 
 Newton's Third Law:
   
"For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction."


In an airplane, the propeller moves and pushes back the air; consequently, the air pushes the propeller (and thus the airplane) in the opposite direction-forward.

 

Bernoulli's Principle of Differential Pressure
   
Bernoulli's Principle states that as the velocity of a moving fluid (liquid or gas) increases, the pressure within the fluid decreases.

This principle explains what happens to air passing over the curved top of the airplane wing.


A practical application of Bernoulli's Principle is the venturi tube. The venturi tube has an air inlet that narrows to a throat (constricted point) and an outlet section that increases in diameter toward the rear. The diameter of the outlet is the same as that of the inlet. The mass of air entering the tube must exactly equal the mass exiting the tube. At the constriction, the speed must increase to allow the same amount of air to pass in the same amount of time as in all other parts of the tube. When the air speeds up, the pressure also decreases.


Since air is recognized as a body, and it is understood that air will follow the above laws, one can begin to see how and why an airplane wing develops lift.


As the wing moves through the air, the flow of air across the curved top surface increases in velocity creating a low-pressure area.

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Airfoil
 
Any object that interacts with a moving stream of air to generate lift.
Examples - wing, propeller, vertical stabilizer, etc.
 
Leading edge - the part of the airfoil which meets the airflow first
 
Trailing Edge - the portion of the airfoil where the airflow over the upper surface rejoins the lower surface airflow
 
Chord Line - a straight line drawn through the airfoil from the leading edge to the trailing edge
 
Camber - curve of the airfoil's upper and lower surfaces
 
Mean Camber - the mean line which is equidistant at all points between upper & lower surfaces
 
Angle of Incidence - Angle between the chord line of the wing and the aircraft's longitudinal axis
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Other Key Terms:
 
Upwash - deflection of the oncoming air stream upward and over the wing
 
Downwash - deflection of the air stream as it passes over the wing and past the trailing edge
     
 
Relative Wind - airflow that is parallel to and opposite the flight path of the airplane
 
Angle of Attack - angle between the chord line of the airfoil and the direction of the relative wind
 
· Coefficient of Lift - CL a way to measure lift as it relates to angle of attack - every airplane has an angle of attack where maximum lift occurs Þ
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You can read more about the concepts above in the Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge.
Chapter 4: Principles of Flight
Chapter 5: Aerodynamics of Flight




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